I bequeath to posterity the name of General Pellieux and that of Émile Zola: history will choose! The Affair engendered numerous antisemitic demonstrations, which in turn affected sentiment within the Jewish communities of Central and Western Europe. This catch seemed of sufficient importance for the head of the "Statistical Section",[25] the Mulhousian[26] Jean Sandherr, to inform the Minister of War, General Auguste Mercier. This was especially critical since several cases of espionage had already hit the headlines of newspapers, which were fond of sensationalism. [105], On seeing letters from Esterhazy, Picquart realized with amazement that his writing was exactly the same as that on the "bordereau", which had been used to incriminate Dreyfus. The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal which took place between 1894 and 1906. The investigation was conducted by Captain Antoine Louis Targe, aide to the minister. [104] In another letter in black pencil, von Schwarzkoppen revealed the same clandestine relationship with Esterhazy. [78][79] Recent research indicates the existence of numbering which suggests the presence of a dozen documents. 6. He had originally been a fanatic supporter for assimilation of Jews into European Gentile society. Spying as a tool for secret war was a novelty as an organised activity in the late 19th century. There is not now and there can be no Dreyfus affair. [120] The challenge was very strong and turned to confrontation. France is still fractured by the Dreyfus Affair. Many Dreyfusards protested as this indemnified not only Zola and Picquart against (further) punishment but also protected the real culprits. The period was also marked by an arms race that primarily affected artillery. [122] Émile Zola, informed in mid-November 1897 by Scheurer-Kestner with documents, was convinced of the innocence of Dreyfus and undertook to engage himself officially. Dreyfus stayed one month in prison on Île Royale and was transferred to Devil's Island on 14 April 1895. In July 1897 Dreyfus’s family contacted the President of the Senate Auguste Scheurer-Kestner to draw attention to the tenuousness of the evidence against Dreyfus. [82], It was a letter from the German military attache, Max von Schwarzkoppen, to the Italian military attaché, Alessandro Panizzardi, intercepted by the SR. And Clemenceau, who had published Zola's famous article J'Accuse which was the turning-point of the affaire , was dismissive about Dreyfus the man, saying that he looked like a pencil salesman. The center of French politics, including Raymond Poincaré, had aligned itself with the pro-revisionists. The English judge, who went as an observer to Rennes, criticised the weaknesses of the Military Court: The Military judges were not familiar with the law or criminal proceedings. He was surprised to learn that all the documents on which the prosecution was based had not been expertly appraised and that Boisdeffre had "absolute confidence" in Henry. In January 1898 two events raised the case to national prominence: Esterhazy was acquitted of treason charges (subsequently shaving his moustache and fleeing France), and Émile Zola published his J'accuse...!, a Dreyfusard declaration that rallied many intellectuals to Dreyfus' cause. The last work of Émile Zola (1902), Truth, transposes the Dreyfus affair to the world of education. All sections of society were affected; some were devastated. Those who supported Dreyfus expected him to behave in a certain way. In addition 1901 saw the birth of the Republican radical socialist Party, the first modern political party,[229] conceived as an electoral machine of the Republican group. "[177], A new crisis arose at the same time in the heart of the Supreme Court, since Quesnay de Beaurepaire, President of the Civil Chamber, accused the Criminal Chamber of Dreyfusism in the press. [196] Mr. Demange, alone and without illusions, continued the defence of Dreyfus in an atmosphere of civil war. The progressive anti-Dreyfusard Republicans such as Jules Méline, were rejected outright. Military History of the Dreyfus Affair that Alfred Dreyfus had been used by French counterintelligence to distract German espionage from the French 75's secret development and furthermore that Esterhazy, who once served in military counterintelligence, had played a role in this manipulation. After reading it the lawyer had absolute confidence, as he saw the emptiness of the prosecution's case. The General Staff, however, still suspected Picquart of causing leaks. [Note 3] This is what led to the origins of the Dreyfus Affair. Henry aspired to be Sandherr's successor, having been his assistant for many years, but Picquart was appointed head of the SR. Du Paty even tried to suggest suicide by placing a revolver in front of Dreyfus, but he refused to take his life, saying he "wanted to live to establish his innocence". Yet Jews, despite the state-sanctioned efforts of the emancipation movement, were never truly accepted into society and were often deemed aliens and outsiders,[239] even when they showed extreme devotion by fighting courageously in the wars of their respective countries.[16]. Right and left regretted the abolition of the death penalty for such a crime. ", Frederick Busi, "A Bibliographical Overview of the Dreyfus Affair. Many Dreyfusards were frustrated by this final act. He began a divestiture of the military justice system, which did not conclude until 1982. On 9 June 1899 he left Devil's Island, heading to France, but locked in a cabin as if guilty, even though he no longer was. During the two months before the trial, the press went wild. Despite these massive protests the bill was passed. The scandal has never died away, with Why the Dreyfus Affair Matters, by Louis Begley, hitting bookstores in 2009 and The Dreyfus Affair: The Scandal that Tore France in Two, by Piers Paul Read, in 2012. [214] However Dreyfus and his supporters were disappointed that his five years of imprisonment were not taken into account for the reconstruction of his career and that his promotion to major was back-dated only to 10 July 1903. The growth of antisemitism, virulent since the publication of Jewish France by Édouard Drumont in 1886 (150,000 copies in the first year), went hand in hand with the rise of clericalism. In the morning of 15 October 1894 Captain Dreyfus underwent this ordeal but admitted nothing. ... Clearly, no one can ever know what happened with him. Yet Cavaignac said "less than ever! [65] In other newspapers, such as L’Éclair on 13 December 1894: "the closed court is necessary to avoid a casus belli"; while for Judet in Le Petit Journal of 18 December: "the closed court is our impregnable refuge against Germany"; or in La Croix the same day: it must be "the most absolute closed court".[66]. For two long months, Dreyfus was plunged into deep despair, convinced that his life would end on this remote island. Report of the Supreme Court, Volume 1, p. 127. His son, Pierre Dreyfus, also served in World War I as an artillery officer and was awarded the Croix de Guerre. Alfred Dreyfus's two nephews also fought as artillery officers in the French Army and both were killed. The court, in overturning the judgement, believed in the legal autonomy of the military court without taking into account the laws of esprit de corps.[190]. The creation of the French League for Human Rights was contemporaneous with the affair. [219], Dreyfus died on 12 July 1935 at the age of seventy-five. [195] These negotiations in the background, however, had no result. The Dreyfus affair created difficulties and blocked the way for improved relations between France and Italy after the customs war as Italy was Europe's most Dreyfusard nation. The anti-revisionists did not consider themselves beaten. While reading his masterpiece À la recherche du temps perdu, I grew interested on this political scandal who seemed to have divided France in two opposing sides - the Dreyfusards and the anti-Dreyfusards - because, for being such an important part of French history, it was largely present throughout Proust’s story and characters. The nationalist press launched a violent campaign against the burgeoning Dreyfusards. French artillery officer Alfred Dreyfus, of Jewish descent, was convicted of treason in 1894 and sentenced to life in prison. [37] Then Major du Paty de Clam[38][39] entered the scene: an eccentric man who prided himself on being an expert in graphology. Contrary to appearances, this verdict was on the verge of acquittal by one vote. The contemporary literature of the case was published between 1894 and 1906. Despite covert attempts by the army to quash the case, the initial conviction was annulled by the Supreme Court after a thorough investigation. This convinced the Office of the General Staff to find a way to stop the questions, doubts, and the beginnings of demands for justice. What stands in the way? The shock trials of Esterhazy and Zola created a dreyfusian politics whose aim was to develop a Republican consciousness and to fight against authoritarian nationalism, which expressed itself during the Affair. In 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, a captain in the French army — and a Jew — was falsely accused of … It The letter was supposed to accuse Dreyfus definitively since, according to his accusers, it was signed with the initial of his name. Paula E. Hyman, "New Perspectives on the Dreyfus Affair. Scheurer-Kestner reported three months later that he was convinced Dreyfus was innocent, and persuaded Georges Clemenceau, a newspaper reporter and former member of the Chamber of Deputies. As for Zola he wrote the third of his Gospels: Truth. This was obviously wrong. Many books appeared during this period. ", Emmanuel Naquet, "L'historiographie récente de l'affaire Dreyfus (2006-2009). [98][99] This fact was confirmed by the President of the Republic to Dr. Gibert in a private conversation. In Russia the conflict between the Jews and the Orthodox Church released the most open and virulent manifestation of religious anti-Semitism. Military witnesses at the trial alerted high command about the risk of acquittal. [5], The Dreyfus Affair occurred in the context of the annexation of Alsace and Moselle by the Germans, an event that fed the most extreme nationalism. Impressed, full of respect for their superiors, they accorded too much importance to fragile allegations that were only made against the accused." [77] The judges took leave to deliberate, but the General Staff still had a card in hand to tip the balance decisively against Dreyfus. For all this paragraph, excluding additional details: Winock, The concept began in a deeply pejorative sense, to denounce, wrote. On one hand, the state used its apparatus to impose a limitation on the trial, restricting it to one of simple libel so as to separate the Dreyfus and Esterhazy cases, which had already been adjudicated. The case was brought before the Assizes of Seine-et-Oise in Versailles where the public was considered more favourable to the army and more nationalistic. Detailed discussions on the bordereau showed that Captain Dreyfus could not be the author. In 1896, evidence came to light—primarily through an investigation instigated by Georges Picquart, head of counter-espionage—which identified the real culprit as a French Army major named Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy. [44] Disappointed, Mercier then called in Alphonse Bertillon, the inventor of forensic anthropometry but no handwriting expert. In response to continuing disorders and demonstrations, a cabinet headed by the Radical René Waldeck-Rousseau was set up in June 1899 with the express purpose of defending the republic and with the hope of settling the judicial side of the Dreyfus case as soon as possible. [204], Preferring to avoid a third trial the government decided to pardon Dreyfus by a decree signed by President Émile Loubet on 19 September 1899 after much hesitation. Bredin. Before recalling the struggle undertaken by Zola for justice and truth is it possible for me to keep silent about those men bent on the destruction of an innocent man and who, after feeling lost, was saved and overwhelmed with the desperate audacity of fear? The hopes of the military were crushed. 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Dreyfus was convicted again and sentenced to ten years of hard labour, though the sentence was commuted due to extenuating circumstances. [172] The split transcended religion and social background, as shown in a cartoon by Caran d'Ache A family dinner: before, "Above all, never talk about it ! On 5 December 1898 in the shadow of a debate in the House on the transmission of the "secret file" to the Supreme Court the tension rose another notch. The power of the press certainly brought politicians to action, an example of which was Mercier, who appeared to have pushed at the Dreyfus trial in 1894 to please La Libre Parole who attacked ferociously. The final consequence on the political scene at the turn of the century saw a profound renewal of political personalities with the disappearance of great republican figures beginning with Auguste Scheurer-Kestner. [181] On 26 September 1898, after a Cabinet vote, the Minister of Justice appealed to the Supreme Court. This method was the most direct and most definitive. If you ask further explanations from Rome, I would say that I never had relations with the Jew. [45] Later, under pressure from the military,[46] he argued that Dreyfus had autocopied it and developed his theory of "autoforgery". [6] The Republic celebrated its army; the army ignored the Republic. This reflected the rank to which he could reasonably have been expected to have risen had his career not been interrupted by the false charges against him. Two of the seven judges voted for acquittal. [179] Émile Loubet was elected, which was an advance for the cause of the review as the previous president had been a fierce opponent. Apart from Major Du Paty de Clam, Dreyfus was the only officer directly involved in the Affair to serve in the war. [192] After five years of imprisonment, he was on his native soil, but he was immediately locked up from 1 July 1899 in the military prison in Rennes. [63] He repeated himself on 29 November 1894 in an article by Arthur Meyer in Le Gaulois, which in fact condemned the indictment against Dreyfus and asked, "How much freedom will the military court have to judge the defendant? [174] When Chanoine was questioned in the House he handed in his resignation; trust was denied to Brisson and he was also forced to resign. The social context was marked by the rise of nationalism and of antisemitism. The Book Report: The eponymous Dreyfus, baseball star Randy, is an All-American Guy with a wife and two daughters. The conduct of the trial revealed the disunity that served the prosecution with a defence so impaired. [233] Especially as the high editorial quality of the press was mainly derived from the work of writers and novelists who used newspapers as a revolutionary way of expression. This instability coincided with an equally unstable presidency: President Sadi Carnot was assassinated on 24 June 1894, his moderate successor Jean Casimir-Perier resigned on 15 January 1895 and was replaced by Félix Faure. The circumstances of the death of Henry are still not clarified and have fed some fantasies. In Germany and Italy, the two countries widely challenged by lawsuits against Dreyfus, there was relief. Dreyfus had to accept guilt. Thomas. Several papers[Note 30] published shorthand notes verbatim of the debates every day to build support in the population. He succeeded in improving stability, and it was under this stable government that the Dreyfus Affair occurred. Miquel. Alfred Dreyfus and the "Dreyfus Affair" Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935) was a French Jewish military officer who was wrongfully tried and convicted of treason against France in 1894. This page was last edited on 14 May 2021, at 05:23. Nationalists were fixated on the idea that there was a conspiracy against Catholicism – and the most obvious culprits were the Jews [93] Haunted by the risk of escape, the commandant of the prison sentenced him to a hellish life, even though living conditions were already very painful. No defendant could be held incommunicado under any law of the time. On 23 February 1899 at the funeral for Faure, Paul Déroulède attempted to force a coup at the Élysée Palace. Archives. He was tried and convicted by a court-martial…, …the great convulsion of the Dreyfus Affair in the last years of the 19th century. This article had the effect of an explosion. [202] The British, as legalists, focused on espionage and challenged rather strongly this conviction devoid of positive arguments in its construction. It is no longer controlled by facts and circumstances carefully examined which will constitute a belief; it is the irresistible cavalier conviction which distorts the facts and beliefs. Antisemitism made considerable progress and riots were common throughout the year 1898. ",[167] but the president of the council, Henri Brisson, forced him to resign. Corrections? The judges of the military court, whom Zola had challenged, therefore opened a new suit against him for libel. Vive la France! [116] He protested in writing and returned to Paris. For some the Dreyfus affair marked French society as a tortured society. He was remanded on 7 August 1899 before the military court of the Breton capital. "[...] he speaks several languages, especially German which he knows thoroughly.". By my work the French language has been brought into the world. It was to be installed at the École Militaire but the Minister of Defense Charles Hernu refused to display it there. Among these letters were some of an erotic homosexual nature (the Davignon letter among others) raising the question of the tainted methods of the Statistics Section and the objective of their choice of documents. These provocations plus permanent demonstrations from the extreme right, although it never actually put the Republic in danger, created a burst of Republicanism leading to the formation of a "government of republican defence" around Waldeck-Rousseau on 22 June 1899. On 4 June 1899 Loubet was assaulted at the Longchamp Racecourse. In counter-attack, the General Staff discovered and revealed the information hitherto ignored in the "secret file". World Jewry was stunned that such an affair could occur in France, the cradle of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the conflict. It was at this point that von Schwartzkoppen terminated his relationship with Esterházy at the beginning of 1896. On 23 May 1898, at the first hearing, Mr. Labori appealed to the Supreme Court regarding the change of jurisdiction, which adjourned the trial and postponed the hearing to 18 July 1898. Alfred Dreyfus was in no way aware of what was happening thousands of kilometres from him. [76] Dreyfus was apoplectic with rage and demanded to be confronted with his anonymous accuser, which was rejected by the General Staff. Socially antisemitism was prominent. On 30 August 1898 Cavaignac resigned himself to demanding explanations from Colonel Henry in the presence of Boisdeffre and Gonse. In 1894 Alfred Dreyfus, a highly placed Jewish army officer, was falsely accused of treason. [73] The fact of Dreyfus's Jewishness was used only by the right-wing press and was not presented in court. Many of the Dreyfusards could not understand this, or did not wish to understand this. [54] Without hesitation, he began looking for a lawyer, and retained the distinguished criminal lawyer Edgar Demange.[55]. I have won mine, too. The prosecutor Manau echoed the views of the President. “The Affair” had inspired moderate republicans, Radicals, and socialists to work together, and the ultimate exoneration of Dreyfus strengthened the Republic, in no small part because of the conduct of its enemies, most notably the army and the Catholic hierarchy. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Cult of the flag and contempt for the parliamentary republic prevailed in the army. [142] The trial opened in an atmosphere of extreme violence—Zola had been the object of "the most shameful attacks"[Note 28] as well as important support and congratulations. It was brief, thanks to the General Staff's skillful manipulation of the investigator. Volume one of a comprehensive series on the Dreyfus Affair, this account chronicles for the first time in English and day by day, the drama that destabilized French society (1894-1906) and … Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. The Dreyfus affair was the first indication that a new epoch of progress and cosmopolitan optimism would be met by a countervailing wave of hatred … Also there were very few demonstrations in the provinces while agitation persisted somewhat in Paris. At that time the heart of the artistic avant-garde, publishing. V. Reception of the affair in Britain, United States and Germany in Drouin. The court identified three events (grounds) for review, the demonstration of the falsification of the Panizzardi telegram, demonstration of a date change on a document in the 1894 trial (April 1895 changed to April 1894) and demonstration of the fact that Dreyfus had not removed the minutes related to heavy artillery in the army. On 20 January 1898, after an anti-Zola speech by rightist politician Albert de Mun at the Chamber of Deputies, the chamber voted 312–22 to prosecute Zola. Alfred Dreyfus was a 36-year-old Jewish French army captain, from the Alsace region of eastern France which was at the time occupied by Germany. "[10] The letters, real and fake, provided a convenient excuse for placing the entire Dreyfus dossier under seal, given that exposure of the liaison would have 'dishonoured' Germany and Italy's military and compromised diplomatic relations. In addition to the memoires of Alfred Dreyfus,[205] Reinach published his History of the Dreyfus Affair and Jaurès published The Proofs. The Dreyfus affair is even now a searing example of miscarriage of justice. The nationalist press and the anti-Dreyfusards could only speculate on his silence about the "conclusive evidence" (the pseudo-note annotated by the Kaiser, which nobody will ever see in evidence) that he had not ceased to report before the trial. [112] They found it convenient to separate the Dreyfus and Esterhazy affairs. The Dreyfus Affair is distinguished by the large number of books published on this subject. She was terrorized by Du Paty, who ordered her to keep the arrest of her husband secret and even said, "One word, one single word and it will be a European war! They destroyed forever the Bertillon system. Verbatim record of the trial of Emile Zola in the Assizes of the Seine and the Supreme Court. Affair are on display in the French military, he managed to convince his seniors to react in favour joint..., Edgar Demange, alone and without illusions, continued the defence of Human Rights promised. Never had relations with the President of the writing of the living descendants of both the Dreyfus Affair focusing! First intervention in the French political life to power the French League the! Was transferred to the rescue of Esterhazy with an unprecedented antisemitic campaign split into. Circumstances of the biggest scandals in the history of European anti-Semitism, should be.. [ 94 ], the emptiness of their case appeared Clearly during the whole of world war I an... Though a parliamentary group in the war the judges had been signed in advance, Thomas... Divisions within French politics, including Raymond Poincaré, had no result 2021, at 05:23 became inevitable email you... Overview of the Supreme court after a day of additional work he provided a report,... 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